Week 6 learning activity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 6 learning activity - Assignment Example Members of the organization should also participate in the determination of suitable corrective measures. Conversely, while using strategy evaluation there are variety of drawbacks in terms of consistency, consonance, feasibility, and advantage that affect is implementation in any organization, thus leading to unfavourable consequence. One of the pitfalls that affect implementation of an organizational strategy is failure of the firm’s to focus. The organizational goal and objectives have to be consistent for the success of the strategy. When an organization fails to focus, its consistency in the market is also affected; thereby the organization ability to gain advantage fails (Outram, 2003). This pitfall leads to loss of profits thus, hampering implementation of the strategy. To correct this kind of drawback, the organization has to determine its objective and focus on it. To ensure that the organization maintains its focus, the management plays significant roles. As a result, the organization can maintain its consistency in provision or a product or service in which it specializes to produce or offer. The second drawback that hampers strategy implementation in an organization is the incapability to nurture belief in its strategy. An organization trying to implement strategy in its operation without passion as a driving factor, will lead to failure of in implementing the intended strategy. This will deny the organization an advantage of creating a superior strategy against its competitors thus fails to ensure profitability as well (Outram, 2003). To correct this, organization has to demonstrate confidence in its culture and belief through effective communication with the intention to win its customers’ confidence. Organization strategic evolution is likely to fail when the organization does not inculcate a sense of pace in its operations. Mainly, organization’s inability to inculcate a sense of pace will affect the

The origins of the US Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The origins of the US Constitution - Essay Example When delegates in nine of the then thirteen states ratified the document, it marked the creation of a union of sovereign states, and a federal government to administer that union. It took effect on March 4, 1789, replacing the weaker, non-centralized union that existed under the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution of the United States is one of the oldest constitutions still in use (the oldest being that of the Republic of San Marino, which dates backs to 1600), and the oldest federal constitution currently in use. In September 1786, commissioners from five states met in the Annapolis Convention to discuss adjustments to the Articles of Confederation that would improve commerce. They invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, the Confederation Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. Twelve states, Rhode Island being the only exception, accepted this invitation and sent delegates to convene in May 1787. The resolution calling the Convention specified its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, but the Convention decided to propose a rewritten Constitution. The Philadelphia Convention voted to keep deliberations secret and decided to draft a new fundamental government design which eventually stipulated that only 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect (for the participating states). Congress, noting dissatisfaction wit h the Articles of Confederation government, unanimously agreed to submit the proposal to the states despite what some perceived as the exceeded terms of reference. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia, followed by a speech given by Benjamin Franklin. In it he talked about how he wasn't completely satisfied with it but that perfection would never fully be achieved. He accepted the document as it was and he wanted all those against the ratification of it to do the same. After fierce fights over ratification in many of the states, New Hampshire became that ninth state on June 21, 1788. Once the Congress of the Confederation received word of New Hampshire's ratification, it set a timetable for the start of operations under the Constitution, and, on March 4, 1789, the government under the Constitution began operations. Changes since 1787 The Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Those amendments were adopted between 1789 and 1791, and all relate to limiting the power of the federal government. First Amendment: addresses the rights of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, freedom of petition, and also freedom of religion, both in terms of prohibiting the Congressional establishment of religion and protecting the right to free exercise of religion. Second Amendment: declares the necessity for "a well regulated militia," and prohibits infringement of "the right of the people to keep and bear arms." Third Amendment: prohibits the government from using private homes as quarters for soldiers without the consent of the owners. The only existing case law regarding this amendment is a lower court decision in the case of Engblom v. Carey. Fourth Amendment: guards against searches, arrests, and seizures of property without a specific warrant or a "probable cause" to believe a crime has been committed. Some rights to privacy have been inferred from this amendment and others by the Supreme Court. Fifth Amendment: forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a grand jury; prohibits repeated trials for the same offense after an acquittal (except in certain very limited

Foreign Market Entry and Diversification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foreign Market Entry and Diversification - Essay Example It is also vital to note that Kinko’s Printing Company has a lot to gain in terms of strengthening its foreign base and expanding the market. The Company should also execute its diversification strategy to acquire more competitive power comparative to their main rivals. The company might also desire to adopt a diversification strategy that is either neutral to value or one that leads to the company’s devaluation. The reason behind this is to neutralize the powers of the rivals in connection to market strength or to minimize the employment risk of the managers within the company. It is vital for Kinko’s Printing Company to consider diversification based on the need to improve the compensation of the managers due to the optimistic relation amid the size of the company, compensation and diversification. A Strategy for Diversification of the Company There are various foreign market entry strategies that Kinko’s Printing Company would take into consideration. T he company would opt to have direct exports, indirect exports, contractual agreements, joint venture or having wholly owned subsidiaries in the foreign countries (Ahlstrom & Bruton, 2010). The company could also opt for licensing other businesses in the foreign nations to run a similar business or even use franchising methods. In this case the best entry mode would to have a joint venture. The main objective of this entry strategy is to distribute risk or share the available technology and to mutually conform to the regulations of the government. The joint venture would specifically concentrate on the technological sector or industry. Some of the main products that would be appropriate for the company to diversify would be 3D printing and 2D printing. The company stands to benefit various synergies such as operational and financial strategies on top of the sales synergies and management strategies. Most importantly, in regard to the operational synergies given that the company falls in the technological sector, the emphasis is found on the need to increase the competitive nature and the marketing strength of the products in the industry. There will be shared costs of operation provided there is full government support in the host nation. The Best Foreign Market for the Company The best foreign market the company should consider diversifying its operation through the joint venture would be South Africa. Doing business in South Africa is indeed favorable for technological firms given the numerous incentives provided by the state. A joint venture in South Africa is possible due to the structures laid down by the Department of Trade and Industry and the Economic Development Department and the Industrial Development Corporation (Paul & Kapoor, 2008). There are numerous government incentives inclusive of the tax breaks and grants which are easily manageable. The main objective is to encourage more private sector participation in the increase of the production capaci ty. In particular, the state incentives are majorly split into three classes: capital expenditure incentives given the desire to acquire and uplift the assets of the company with an aim to create or diversify the productive capacity of the business. Besides, the government offers development and research incentives for such companies as Kinko’s Printing Company that would enable the firm to design and improve the latest products and business processes. Last but

Strategic Audit of Mohawk Industries Assignment

Strategic Audit of Mohawk Industries - Assignment Example According to SEC Form 10-K of the company, the Mohawk segment or subsidiary â€Å"designs, manufactures, sources distributes, and markets its floor covering product lines, which include carpets, ceramic tile, laminate, rugs, carpet pad, hardwood and resilient.† Brands under the segment include Mohawk, Aladdin, MohawColorCenter, Floorscapes, Portico, Mohawk Home, Bigelow, Durkan, Horizon, Karastan, Lee and Merit. The Dal-Tile segment â€Å"designs, manufactures, sources, distributes and markets a broad line of ceramic tile, porcelain tile products.† Primary brands under the Dal-Tile segment include Dal-Tile and American Olean. According to the SEC Form 10-K, the Dal-Tile segment is vertically integrated from the production of raw materials for body and glaze preparation to the manufacturing and distribution of ceramic and porcelain tile.† Based on Form 10-K, the Unilin segment â€Å"designs, manufactures, sources, licenses and markets a broad line of ceramic tile, porcelain tile, natural stone and other products.† The Unilin segment is â€Å"one of the largest vertically-integrated laminate flooring manufacturing in the U.S. producing laminate flooring and related high-density fiberboard† and â€Å"also produces roofing systems, insulation panels and other wood products.† Thus, the Mohawk segment concentrates on carpets, rugs, and floor covers in general, the Dal-Tile segment focuses on the ceramic and porcelain floor covers and tiles business, and the Unilin segment focuses on laminate covering and expansion of the company to other types of house or building-related businesses but usually wood or wood-related or fiberboards. Mohawk Industries describes herself to be in the leading market positions in carpets, ceramic, laminate, rugs and mats, stone flooring and countertops, and wood products. Data available appear to support her claims. As the leading firm in the market, Mohawk’s financial data (shown in Annexes 1 to 9 of this work) is indicative of the industry’s long-term profitability.     

Most Influential People in European History Essay Example for Free

Most Influential People in European History Essay Charles Darwin Greetings peers. My name is Charles Darwin. I am a British scientist who laid the foundations of the theory of evolution and transformed the way we think about the natural world. I was born in 1809 into a very earthy and well-connected family. In 1809 after graduating from Cambridge University, I joined the HMS Beagle as the ships’ naturalist on a five-year voyage around South America. This is the trip in which I credit with establishing my working methods and knowledge that sustained my scientific career. My observations on the Galapagos Islands, gave me the first inkling of what would eventually become The Origin of The Species. My theory of natural selection states that a species adapts to its surroundings by making small genetic mutations in order to survive. The species that do not adapt will die and those who do will survive. Apparently this was very controversial. People claimed that it stripped away any room for fate and God. Because my ideas of evolution and natural selection rely on my observations and science rater than a pure irrational faith in Gods will, many were upset. However, I saw my findings as a way to prove Gods influence on earth and show how he operates. Even though  natural selection did not become a widely accepted principle until the 1930s, in the end my findings were becoming more accepted. I am definitely one of the most influential people in European history because my findings have not only influenced the world of science, but the world of religion. I also influenced later social theories such as Social Darwinism. Adolph Hitler Greetings to all who have come today. My name is Adolph Hitler. I should efinitely be considered to win the award for the most influential person in European history because I was the leader of Germany in the Third Reich and my action changed the world forever. Please allow me to elaborate. I was born on April 20, 1889 in Austria. When I was 16 both of my parents died, so I decided to move to study the art of painting at an art school in Vienna. However, fortunately for me, I was kicked out of art school due to my lack of artistic talent. I stayed in Vienna for some time, and this is when I was able to develop my personal views towards certain groups, such as my hatred for Jews and Marxists. In 1913 I moved to Munich and avoided Austrian military service during WWI at all cost. In 1914, I joined the 16th Bavarian Infantry Regiment and ended up serving throughout the First World War. I was discussed with Germanys surrender and the Treaty of Versailles. This was when I became convinced I was destined to save Germany. Once discharged from the army,  I became heavily involved in the National Socialist Party, a small extremist group during the Weimar Republic. Quickly rose to a powerful position due to my impressive intelligence and people skills. I gave the party the symbol of a Swastika, which million came to fear and still fear to this day. It came to represent the personal army of storm troopers known as the SA or Brownshirts, whose job was to attack any opponents to the party’s objectives. Because the Weimar Republic was so weak and Germany was in a state of political and economic crisis, I thought that the National Socialist Party would be able to revolt and seize power of the government. In 1923, I led a small sect of the socialist party and attacked Munich, Germany. The attack was known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Unfortunately for myself, this attempt was a monumental failure. Fortunately for me, I only had to serve none months in prison. Prison turned out to be not that bad, and it provided me with loads of time to refocus my tactics. While in prison I wrote one of the most controversial and important books of all time, know as Mein Kampf or my struggle. In it I outlined my theories on race, specifically anti-Semitism, Germany, specifically how I wanted all true Aryan Germans to become one united pan-German state, and my goal to abolish the Treaty of Versailles. After I was released from jail, I was determined to seek power by infiltrating and corrupting the Weimar Republic. I cautiously reinstituted the Nazi party. In 1932 I acquired German citizenship and ran for president, coming only second to Hindenburg. Later that year the Nazi party acquired 230 seats in the Reichstag, making us the largest political party in Germany. I got lots of support from conservative politicians believing they could control me if I was given a high political position, so I was appointed Chancellor of Germany on January 30th 1933. I knew then that I was capable of achieving my goals. I moved with great acceleration to isolate and expel any other politicians who posed a threat to my power, shut trade unions down, and to remove all communists, conservatives and Jews. At this rate it was no wonder that I soon took over the role of president when Hindenburg died, thus merging my current role of chancellor to become the Furrier of Germany. I then did everything in my power to radically change Germany. I combined power positions to my benefit, locked up German enemies like Jews, rebuilt the army and broke the constraints of the Treaty of Versailles. I tried to change the social acceptances in Germany by encouraging women to become more active and bringing in laws to secure racial purity. As promised I made employment fall to zero, despite the fact that Europe was in a great depression. In order to ensure nothing went wrong, I also made myself head of the army. After that I knew it was time to expand Germany and reassert its dominance as a world power. I used my keen tactical skills and put together a plan to expand Germany. I was able to unite Germany with Austria in what is now called an Anschluss, as well as divide Czechoslovakia. In 1939, I had German forces invade Poland, which caused much controversy amongst other nations who as a result declared war. I saw this as a great opportunity for Germany to assert its dominance through war. At first the war was going well. However, in 1941 when we unsuccessfully invaded Russia and lost battles in Western Europe it became clear that Germany was slowly loosing the war. I had never felt a greater disappointment in my life, so on April 30 1945 I decided to end my life. Although my efforts in Germany ended in the most disappointing way, there is not doubt that I forever influenced not only all of Europe, but the world. I will forever be remembered for being the most prominent catalyst of the Second World War, which was and still is the most costly conflict in European history. I will also be remembered for how I managed to manipulate and convince thousands of people the help me peruse my dreams of racial purity, which I was charged for the brutal execution of million of innocent people. It is for these reasons that I should be chosen for the most influential man in European history. Sir Isaac Newton Hello. For those of you who do not know my name is Sir Isaac Newton. I am so very pleased to be acknowledged by such an esteemed committee for my efforts to improve the world. I am an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer and theologian, who has been considered by many to be the greatest and most influential  scientist  who ever lived. I was born in 1642 in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire. However, I made my true impact in the later years of my life. As an intellectual, I wanted to solve the problem that past intellectuals like Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo have developed. All of them made theories about how the planets revolve around the sun, but I always wondered How? I wanted to be able to give credibility to their theories, so I worked for almost two decades on trying to solve the problem. I eventually published my book Principa, in 1687, which is sometimes to be considered the most influential book of all time. In it I determined that all planets and objects are held in the elliptical orbit by a force called gravity. I also built the first practical  reflecting telescope  and developed a theory of color based on the observation that a  prism  decomposes white light into the many colors that form the  visible spectrum. My findings scared me because I was a man of God and I knew that the church would not be very pleased with my findings. However, my findings were very important and influential in the world forever changing how people view the whorl as well as contributing to future scientific efforts. I hope that you all will consider me as a viable nominee for most influential. John Locke Good evening. My name is John Locke (1632-1704). I definitely believe that I should be considered as the most influential people in European history because I am widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism and am regarded as one of the most influential philosopher and physicians of the Enlightenment. I wrote the literary piece Two Treaties on Government  in, which was published before the Revolution of 1688, but after William and Mary came to power. In it I argue that all men are born free of sin and free in nature. I argued that all men are born with a tabula rasa, or a clean state of mind, and that fate is not predetermined by God, but up to how the person corrupts his mind. Because all men are born free, as soon as he joins society he enters a social contact with the state. The contract protects mans natural rights to life, liberty and property and as long as the social contract is kept there would be no controversy. However, I made it very clear that if a government begins to oppress a persons natural rights it is the peoples duty to rebel against the government. I believe that I am truly Europes most influential people of all time. My ideas and beliefs served as a defense for many a revolution, as well as the main basis for the English Bill of Rights. My work also played a critical part in the foundation in the United States Bill of Rights. Frederick William Good day to you all. My name is Frederick William. I am often referred to as the Great Elector since while I was a ruler of Brandenburg I served as one of the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Because my state of Prussia consisted of three loosely bordered chances of lard, I wanted to build up an army capable of unifying them. Because I did not have the considerable resources needed to achieve this goal on my own, I worked out an agreement with the Junkers. The Junkers provided me with revenue in exchange for my acceptance of their rule over serfs. This arrangement worked out very well for quite some time because it provided me with support and resources and them with economic reassurance and opportunity. I definitely should be considered as one of the most influential men in history because I build up the strong militarized empire of Prussia in which I built was left to my son Fredrick the Great, who was able to use the considerable resources left to him to further strengthen Prussia. Joseph Stalin Greetings. My name is Joseph Stalin. I served as the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unions Central Committee from 1922 until my death in 1953. I am known for assuming the leading role in Soviet Politics after Vladimir Lenins death in 1924. As primary ruler of Russia, I integrated the Five-Year Plans that radically altered Soviet economic and social structures resulting in the death of millions. In the 1930s, I eliminated any threat to my power through purge trails and secret xecutions. In World War II I signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression pact of 1938, attacked Finland, and annexed parts of Eastern Europe to strengthen Russias western frontiers. When Hitler went against our nonaggression pact, I decided to take control of military operations. I allied Russia with Britain and the U. S. , which ended up being a very smart move, seeing that we won the war. After the war I consolidated Soviet Power in Eastern Europe and built up the Soviet U nion as a world military pose. I should definitely be considered the most significant person in European History because I brought the Soviet Union into world prominence, even if it was at the cost of my people. I left a legacy of repression and fear as well as making Russia an industrial and military power, which made Russia more prominent in future world conflicts such as the Cold War. Napoleon Bonaparte Bonjour mes Amis!! I am so pleased to be given the opportunity to speak for you today. My name is Napoleon Bonaparte and I was born August of 1769. I was the French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French revolution. I was the sole Emperor of France from 1804-1815. While in power I made many legal reforms, specifically the Napoleonic code, which has been a major influence on many civil law jurisdictions, but I am best remembered for my role in the wars led against France by a series of coalitions, now known as the Napoleonic Wars. During the wars, I  established authority over most of Europe and sought to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, while building an empire. Because of my consistent success in these wars, I am  generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. I  was born in Corsica to parents of noble ancestry and trained as an officer in France. I rose to a high level political standing under the French First Republic and led successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions. In 1799, I staged a  coup detat  and put myself as First Consul. Five years later, the French Senate proclaimed me as emperor. In the first decade of the 19th century, the  French Empire engaged in some conflicts-the Napoleonic Wars-involving every major European power. After a few victories, I made sure France secured a dominant position in Europe, and I maintained French influence to rule other European countries. The fight against Spain and my invasion of Russia was the turning point for me. My impressive army was damaged and was never able to fully recover. In 1813, the Sixth Coalition defeated my forces and invaded my dear France. As a result I was forced to give up my position as Emperor and exiled to an island called Elba. However, I was not quite done fighting yet, as I escaped less that a year later and returned to power, but made the mistake if not building up more support and as a consequence lost the battle of Waterloo in 1815. I spent the rest of my life on an English island called Saint Helena, where I eventually died of stomach cancer. I believe that I should definably be considered as the most influential person in all of European History because I was one of the greatest military commanders of all time and I was twice the Emperor of France, whose military actions and sheer personality dominated Europe for a full decade. Mussolini For those of you who do not know, my name is Benito Mussolini. Although I am not surprised for my nomination, I am completely honored to have the opportunity to try and convince you why I was the most influential person in history. I am an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party, as well as being credited as one of the key figures in the creation of fascism. I was among the founders of Italian Fascism, which included elements of nationalism, corporatism, expansionism, social progress, and anti-socialism in combination with censorship of conspiracies and propaganda. My formation and release of the fascist ideology resulted in many political figures having a deep admiration for me. I eventually became the fortieth Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and had many domestic achievements. I started many public works programs, improved job opportunities, public transportation, and fixed Italys economic battles. I also solved an ongoing problem with the church with the Lateran Treaty between the state of Italy and the Pope. In 1940, I led Italy into World War II. I was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity to carry out a long war with France and the UK, so I waited until both were on the verge of imminent collapse and surrender because of the German invasion before declaring war on France and the UK. I  believed that after the imminent French surrender, Italy could gain some territorial concessions and then concentrate its forces on a major offensive in Egypt where British forces were outnumbered by Italian forces. In 1943,  soon after the start of the  Allied invasion of Italy,  I was defeated in the vote at the  Grand Council of Fascism, and the day after the vote the King had me arrested. Hitler rescued me, installed me as puppet dictator of northern Italy. I then  facilitated significant war production for the Germans and the creation of large, ruthless Fascist counterinsurgency forces. The April 1945 German surrender in Italy forced me to flee. I was then captured and shot. I should definitely be considered as the most influential person in history because my actions as an Italian dictator unified Italy, borough Fascism to be one of the leading political parties of the time, and had a significant impact in WWII. Karl Marx Hello. My name is Karl Marx. I was a German philosopher born in 1818 and was by far on e of the most influential political writers in history. My ideas played a significant toll in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. I grew up in a pretty well of family that could afford to have things like a prized education, so as a result I ended up going to study at the university of Berlin to study for four years. My studies allowed me to become a very thoughtful and intelligent person capable of seeing perspective. After I finished my studies I went to go work at a newspaper, and began to work out my theory of dialectal materialism. I then moved to Paris in 1843, where I began working for a few other radical newspapers. Because of my radical views, I was exiled to Brussels and became the leading figure in the Communist League. It was at this point where I began to write and formulate my theories about the nature of society and how I believed it could be drastically improved through a series of changes. When I saw the working conditions in London, I became a leading figure in the International Workingmens Association. My theories about society, economics and politics, now known as Marxism, state that societies progress through class struggle, or a conflict between the upper classes reign and the lower classes abuse. In other words I believe that capitalism is true oppression instigated by the upper class for there sole benefit, and thus increasing mass tensions in society. As a result of these tensions society would lead to self-destruction and eventually be replaced by a new system called socialism. I believed that under socialism, the working class or â€Å"the workers’ democracy† would govern society. Eventually, I believed that socialism would turn and be replaced by a stateless, classless society called communism. I eventually wrote all of my ideas down in  a highly influential book known as  The Communist Manifesto. Unfortunately, I was never able to see communism take true form. However, throughout world history, I have proved to be very influential, as revolutionary governments have used my concepts leading to the formation OD socialist states such as the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China. Countless workers parties have also been influenced by my ideas making me a viable candidate for most influential person in European History. Otto von Bismarck Hallo. My name is Otto Von Bismarck. I was born in Brandenburg Germany in 1815. I studied law and agriculture and in 1847 entered the new Prussian Parliament as an ultra-royalist. When I entered parliament I was extremely opposed to democracy because I had little to know faith in allowing peasants and unintelligent people run the great German state. During the 1848 Revolutions, I even tried to argue against constitutional reform, but the Frankfurt Assembly demanded equal rights. For a while I served as a foreign ambassador in Russia and France, but was recalled in 1862 so I could become the President of Prussia. As president of Prussia, I instigated wars that made Prussia dominant over Austria and France. In 1867, I also become the Chancellor of the North German Confederation. I practically designed and created the German Empire in 1871, becoming the first chancellor and largely controlling all of its affairs until the arrogant Kaiser Wilhelm II removed me from office. My diplomacy of Realpolitik and powerful rule eventually gave me the nickname the iron chancellor           As leader of revolutionary conservatism, I became a hero to German nationalists, I was primarily responsible for the unification of the German states and I used balance of power diplomacy to keep Europe peaceful. It is for these reasons that I should be a serious candidate for the most influential person in all of European history.

Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe

Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe To What Extent Can The Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe Be Attributed To The Crimean War (1853-1856)? The collapse of the Concert of Europe can be attributed to the Crimean War to a limited extent as there were many other factors which acted to undermine the Concert, causing instability and disputes amongst the nations involved. Although the Crimean War can be indentified to have been a major instance in which participating countries disregarded their policies of peace in pursuit of national interest, this was not as significant to the collapse as earlier factors which essentially rendered the Concert obsolete. The rise of European nationalism and the conflicting ideology and differing aims of the countries involved created the unstable conditions for both the deterioration of the concert and the outbreak of the Crimean War. Therefore the Crimean War can be viewed as a final trigger, but not a sole instigation of collapse. The 18th Century nationalistic movement which was beginning to assert a strong hold among many European countries, acted to undermine the concert by threatening stability throughout Europe. In particular, the revolutionary upheavals of 1848 seriously weakened the Concert by demanding that frontiers established in the Congress of Vienna to be reviewed. In the Hungarian revolution of 1849, riots on the 15th of March by Magyar nationalists in Pest-Buda, now Budapest, the capital of Hungary, demanding Hungarys political independence from Austria resulted in the resignation of the Austrian Prince Metternich, a key personality in the negotiations in the Congress of Vienna. In a letter to Tsar Nicolas I of Russia in March 1848, a primary source informing of his resignation, Metternich describes the social crises as a ‘torrent no longer within the power of man†. Revolutionary upheavals were also apparent in France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and Poland. The balance of power main tained in Europe was shifting, and as expressed by Metternich, the Concert of Europe had little influence over it. This largely undermined the Concerts objectives, as stated in Article VI of the 1815 Quadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia which formed the basis of the Concert, it was the responsibility of the ‘High Contracting Powers to renew at fixed intervals meetings consecrated to great common objects and the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. As peace was not being maintained, the concert was, even at this point, somewhat defunct. Furthermore, this movement acted as an important impetus for the political unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. Owing to the development of 18th Century nationalism, Europe was geographically altered as countries gained their independence. Consequently, European d iplomacy was also altered causing a weakening of the concert, especially as conflict arose between the countries involved regarding intervention in revolution.iHu A fundamental division amongst members of the Concert of Europe, caused by conflicting ideological perspectives regarding intervention against revolutionary movements, acted to undermine the relationship between the countries. A foremost concern for the preservation of peace was the manner of dealing with revolutions and constitutional movements as many statesmen feared the idealogy of the French Revolution was still a powerful influence and as settlements in the Congress of Vienna had failed to satisfy nationalistic and constitutionalistic ambitions. Austria and Russia maintained it was the responsibility and right of the great powers to intervene and impose their collective will on states threatened by internal rebellion, with the Austrian diplomat Metternich stressing that revolution was a ‘terrible social catastrophe and believed that ‘only order produces equilibrium. However, Britain did not wish to intervene in internal disputes and instead pursed a less reactionary policy. Britains foreign secretaries, Castlereagh and later, Canning, acted to distance Britain from the policies of the continental powers with Canning clearly stating that ‘England is under no obligation to interfere, or assist in interfering, in the internal affairs of independent states. Thus, Britain disputed intervention within the Congress of Troppau in 1820, a response to revolts in Spain, Portugal, Piedmont and Naples, and at the Congress of Laibach in 1821 where Austria and Russia had prepared to mobilise soldiers against Italian revolts. The tension which resulted from these disputes lead to Britains increased isolation from Austria, Prussia and Russia while France maintained relations with both sides of the divide. Even though in 1825, a final Congress was held at St Petersburg in an attempt to resolve these disputes, only Austria, Prussia and Russia actively particpated revealing the large extent to which the Concert had been weakened. Despite the assertion that countries within the concert were acting for the greater interest of all of Europe, due to world economies becoming geo-political, with a focus on imperialism, colonialism and economic rivalry, the individual interests of countries revealed cracks in the system. Britains particular opposition towards intervention in Latin American revolutions was based on the grounds that Britain would be forgoing trade profit from the Spanish if rebellions ended there, and hence, refused to cooperate on the grounds of nationalistic interest which existed despite the concert. Geo-political competition and jealousy between European nations became particularly apparent in their decision to prohibit the entry of all foreign warships into the straits between Bosporus and Dardanelles. As a reward for Russian military assistance against Egypt, Russia was rewarded with advantageous access to these straits by the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi in 1833, which closed the Dardanelles off to â€Å"any foreign vessels of war† other than Russian. This allowed Russian commercial vessels free access into the Mediterranean, a significant benefit for Russian export trade particularly considering the growing importance of ports such as Odessa in the Ukraine. The Concert was indignant of Russias access to the straits and so an attempt to inhibit Russian expansionism, the straits convention was held in 1841 in which it was declared that no country should be in an advantageous position regarding the use of the straits. Furthermore, European nations were competing for raw materials, markets and land in order to fuel growing populations. Russia was still eager to increase its influence in the Balkans, and to gain control of the straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea then under Turkeys control. Britain and France viewed Russian control of the straits as a threat to their own trade interests, and Austria was uneasy about Russias growing influence in the Balkans. These tensions regarding the control of the Balkans in turn compounded the tension which already existed in the practically obsolete concert, and ultimately lead to the outbreak of the Crimean war, in which the remnants of the Concert expired. The outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853 signified the downfall of the Concert of Europe as the great powers engaged in war with one another over matters of national interest. In making an expansionary thrust at the Ottoman Empire, Russia disregarded any pretence of backing an altruistic balance of power. The causes of the Crimean War conflicted with the doctrine of the concert as an aspect of the preservation of the balance of power in Europe had been directed at preventing a single nation from gaining control of the Ottoman Empire, which was intended by Metternich to be a solution to the Eastern Question. As Russia sought to take exploit the decaying Ottoman Empire, in effect, it undermined the remnants of the Concert and the balance of power, leading to France and Britain, along with some assistance from Sardinia engaging in war to ironically, maintain peace in Europe. Effectively, this simply acted to sacrifice the Concert system with the war having the highest casualty rate of an y European conflict between the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and 1914, the Outbreak of World War One, as more than 450 000 Russians, 95 000 French and 22 000 English lost their lives during the conflict. Renowned historian A.J.P. Taylor states that regarding European international relations, the Crimean War destroyed the charade of Russian military dominance in Europe, which lead to Russias diminished influence in European affairs subsequent to 1856. Through sheer number, the Russian army had been the largest force and yet it was still defeated by the comparably smaller French and British armies. The internal effects of the war on countries within the Concert of Europe are also highly significant when considering the destruction of the balance of power. Having been made aware of Russias social and industrial backwardness through military weakness within the war, the Russian Tsar Alexander II became convinced of the need for Russian reform. Napoleon III of France sought to adopt new fo reign policies which eventually lead to conflict in the 1860s with Austria and Prussia. Austria had been isolated as its ties with Russia were severed due to Russias expectation as a result of its assistance in suppressing the 1849 Magyar revolts in Hungary, Austria would remain neutral in the war. The Treaty of Paris reached in 1856, permanently altered the balance of power and highlighted the strain which had been placed on it through the Crimean War. At the conclusion of the war, severe penalties were placed on Russia by the other countries, restricting its influence. Russia was made to surrender Bessarabia, situated at the mouth of the Danube, had to forgo claims as protector of Orthodox Christians, and lost influence over the Romanian principalities which, along with Serbia, were granted greater independence. Furthermore, the Black Sea was declared neutral, closing it off to all warships which effectively left Russia with an undefended southern border. This left Russia with little incentive to uphold the goals of the Concert as it was now at considerable disadvantage to the other European powers. Upon the conclusion of treaty negotiations the Concert was obsolete, with its goals abandoned and communication at a stand-still. Through the treaty of Paris it became apparent th at the Crimean war had disrupted nineteenth-century diplomacy, thereby destroying the decayed Concert of Europe. Although the Crimean War can be identified as the first major instance in which countries within the Concert of Europe clearly disregarded the policy of peace and turned against one another, it can only be held responsible for the concerts demise to a limited extent. The rise of Nationalism in Europe and the instability caused by the widespread outbreak of revolution caused a strong divide amongst countries. Britains refusal to assist in intervention particularly acted to undermine the authority and cohesion essentially making the Concert practically obsolete prior to the outbreak of the Crimean War. Therefore the war can be seen to have been the conclusion of the concert, but was by no means the sole cause of collapse. Bibliography Fisher, H.A.L, A History of Europe Volume II, Eyre Spottiswoode 1935 Langhorne, Richard, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890-1914, Macmillan, 1981 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History 1789-1980, Routledge, 1982 Medlicott, William N, Bismarck, Gladstone, and the Concert of Europe, Athlone Press, University of London, 1956 Robinson, James Harvey, Readings in European History, Vol. II, Boston: Gin and Co, 1906 Schroeder, Paul W., Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert, Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY, 1972 Sweetman, John, The Crimean War, Osprey Publishing Limited, London, United Kingdom, 2001 Taylor, A. J. P. The Origins of the Second World War, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1961 Robinson, James Harvey, Readings in European History p.464 Schroeder, Paul W., Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War, p.211 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History, p.26 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History, p.27 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276910/Treaty-of-Hunkar-Iskelesi Langhorne, Richard, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890-1914 p.38 Sweetman, John, The Crimean War p.42 A.J.P. Taylor, The origins of the second world war, Ch. 3 p.71

Effect of the 19th Century on Children

Effect of the 19th Century on Children How did the lives of children change during the 19th century? Until the start of the industrial revolution, children were seen as small adults with few rights of their own. By the end of the nineteenth century childhood was a very different experience. The following essay will explore how this change came about. Children of the poorer classes had been part of the labour force for centuries, but with the rise of the factories, their work conditions changed. Children made up ‘two-thirds of the workforce on powered equipment in 143 water mills in England and Scotland’ [1] Conditions in factories were harsh, discipline strict and sometimes cruel, and hours were long. A mill worker is quoted in the Parliamentary Committee of 1832: I worked from five in the morning till nine at night. I lived two miles from the mill. We had no clock. If I had been†¦a quarter of an hour too late, a half an hour would have been taken off. I only got a penny an hour, and they would have taken a halfpenny.[2] In 1833 the Royal Commission on the Employment of Children reported many instances of children being strapped or hit, often because a child had fallen asleep towards the end of a fourteen hour day.[3] The Government tried to enforce some age restrictions in the early 1800s, but they were mainly ineffective because of the difficulty in proving children’s ages.[4] In the 1830s factory owners argued that the reduction of hours would result in higher prices, but in 1833 the Althorp’s Factory Act reduced working hours further, and by 1847 the ten-hour day was in place. In 1842 the Royal Commission carried out a Mines Report that revealed horrific conditions: I’m a trapper in the Gawber pit. It does not tire me, but I have to trap without a light and I’m scared. I go at four and sometimes half past three in the morning and come out at five and half past. I never go to sleep. Sometimes I sing when I’ve light, but not in the dark; I dare not sing then. I don’t like being in the pit. Sarah Gooder, aged 8[5] Lord Ashley (later Shaftesbury) pointed out that in Wales ‘it is not unusual to take them into the pits at 4 years’[6] The use of ‘climbing boys’ for cleaning chimney flues was also horrifying. There were reports of horrendous burning or suffocation accidents, sometimes fatal. Campaigners against this practice included Charles Dickens, and Charles Kingsley’s The Water Babies created further awareness, and it was a year after its serialised publication that the use of children for chimney cleaning was banned.[7] However, census returns show that child labour did not reduce significantly until at least the 1880s. The figures for boys working in mines show that there was no decline in figures until 1881 when the figures decreased from 36,000 in 1871 to 26,000.[8] The reason why so many families put their children to work was due to poverty. Henry Mayhew was told in 1851: ‘My little girl began about six†¦She never goes to school. We can’t spare her.’[9] The growth of the population in the cities and towns, plus the immigration of the Irish during the potato famine, and further immigration from Africa and Asia, had led to massive overcrowding and hardship, and the existing Poor Law legislation was no longer effective. Children growing up in urban slums were surrounded by dirt and disease, and infant mortality rates were high. Reports from people such as Edwin Chadwick and Henry Mayhew illustrated the squalor of living conditions for the working classes in the cities. The evangelical reformer, Lord Shaftesbury, witnessed the conditions when he visited London’s slums in 1846 and was struck by: †¦the children, whom he described as a race of beings apparently unknown to the outside world: nondescript, unknown, uncared for, begging on street corners, squatting on doorsteps, wading in the gutters. Some had no home. Some had no name.’[10] In these conditions children inevitably turned to crime or prostitution and when caught were punished as adults.[11] Some children might be deported to Australia, where the growing Empire colonies needed extra labour. Social reformers such as Mary Carpenter had some influence in changing the treatment of child criminals, and growing public awareness led to an increase in charities and orphanages. Improved welfare legislation and the new opportunities for education in the 1870s did much to improve the situation.[12] The introduction of state education in 1870 created the most effective change for the lives of working and poor children. Previously the only schooling provision had been Dame Schools, Sunday Schools or Charity Schools, but children who went to these schools rarely received more than the basic three ‘Rs’. In many areas there was no school provision at all.[13] Without income protection, wealthier families could fall victim to hard times. John Shinn, whose father fell ill and could not afford to send him to school, said: ‘The greatest and most serious misfortune of my life has been the loss of schooling or education’[14] There was some debate on whether the education of the labouring classes would improve or damage society, but reformers such as the philosopher, John Stuart Mill, argued that knowledge produces understanding and sensible behaviour.[15] The extension of the vote to working class men in 1867 caused a greater awareness of the importance of education. However, there was still a laissez-faire argument that the state had no right to be involved in education. The 1870 Education Act did not make schooling compulsory, or free. However, compulsory education was in place by the end of the 1870s, and the age for this rose over the next few decades until by the mid-twentieth century education was compulsory until the age of 16. With education and fewer working hours, leisure time improved. As literacy increased, so did the availability of books and magazines for children. By 1900 clubs and youth movements had been set up to provide entertainment – and to ensure that youngsters with time on their hands did not get into trouble.[16] For children of the middle and upper classes, life was different. Not required to earn an income, most children received regular education, either at home or at a private school. However, educational provision for girls was usually poor or non-existent, and the prevailing attitude was that girls were of less importance. Molly Hughes, the daughter of a stockbroker said: I was never taken to anything more exciting than a picture gallery, not even to a pantomime at Christmas†¦My father’s slogan was that boys should go everywhere and know everything, and that a girl should stay at home and know nothing.[17] Due to the campaigns concerning equal rights for women, girls’ education improved considerably during the century, with schools and colleges being set up in the 1850s, and university education from the 1870s. Looking back to his childhood in the 1840s, Charles Shaw wrote in 1893: I wonder whether it is true that I was allowed to be worked for fourteen hours a day when a little over seven years of age†¦whether it is true that even poor children now receive a better education than†¦Tom Hughes;†¦ if the rags, and squalor, and severe labour and long hours of those days, as contrasted with the leisure, and plenty, and recreation of these days are all illusions?[18] This quote illustrates the changes for some children over the course of the century. Children were now regarded as a separate entity to be protected and cared for. They were no longer ‘mini-adults’ to be used as another source of income, or left to roam the streets as orphans. Childhood, as a separate experience to adulthood, had been created. Bibliography Avery, Gillian, The Echoing Green: Memories of Regency and Victorian Youth, Collins, 1974 Best, Geoffrey, Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-1875, Fontana Press, 1990 Burnett, John, Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of Childhood, Education and Family from the 1820s to the 1920s, Penguin, 1984. Duckworth, Jeannie, Fagin’s Children: Criminal Children in Victorian England, Hambledon London, 2002 Galbi, Douglas A., ‘Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills’, 1994 Golby, J. M. (Ed), Culture and Society in Britain 1850-1890, Oxford University Press, 1990 Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, July 7, 1842, in Turral, J., (Ed) A Source-Book of British History, Oxford, 1925 Horn, Pamela, The Victorian Town Child, Sutton Publishing, 1999 Rubinstein, David, Victorian Homes, David Charles, 1974 Steinbach, Susie, Women in England 1760-1914, Weidenfeld Nicolson, 2004 Wilson, A. N., The Victorians, Arrow Books, 2003 www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk www.victorianweb.org www.wikipedia.org 1 Footnotes [1] Galbi, Douglas A., ‘Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills’, 1994 [2] quoted in www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/IRtime.htm [3] Taylor, D, Mastering Economic and Social History, Macmillan, pp.196-7 [4] ibid. p.200 [5] quoted in www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html [6] Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, July 7, 1842, in Turral, p.294 [7] Wilson, A. N., The Victorians, Arrow, p.295-299 [8] Best, G., Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-1875, Fontana, pp. 130-1 [9] quoted in Steinbach, Susie, Women in England 1760-1914, p.166 [10] Duckworth, Jeannie, Fagin’s Children: Criminal Children in Victorian England, p.3 [11] ibid, p.6 [12] ibid, pp.135-6 [13] Taylor, pp.278-9 [14] Burnett, John, Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of Childhood, Education and Family from the 1820s to the 1920s, Penguin, p.136 [15] Golby, J. M. (Ed), Culture and Society in Britain 1850-1890, OUP, p.136 [16] Horn Pamela, The Victorian Town Child, pp153-179 [17] Horn, p.20 [18] Avery, Gillian, The Echoing Green: Memories of Regency and Victorian Youth, p.117